10 Facts About Elasmosaurus, Ancient Marine Reptile

Police Discretion - 2677 Words

From a criminological perspective discretion can be defined as the authority granted by law to agencies and officials to act on their own considered judgement and conscience in certain situations; and each area of the legal system (judges, parliament and law enforcement) has its own discretion. Police discretion is the ability granted by the legal system to police offices, in certain situations, to act in a manner that allows authorities to make responsible decisions and individual choices or judgments, within certain legal bounds. In law enforcement, discretion is left up to each individual officer to make reasonable and responsible decisions out in the field everyday (Beech, 2008). Discretion is used in many situations, such as when an†¦show more content†¦On the other hand, if a police officer decides to shoot their weapon when the suspect is unarmed, is very unnecessary and unethical (USDOJ, 1999). The use of force is almost always up to the officer that is dealing with the suspect at hand; though an officer’s interpretation of the law and any personal bias’ towards a certain group are individual factors that can influence an officer’s decision. Although the description given to police officers regarding the extent of the use of force is that which is only necessary and reasonable in a present situation, but factors such as officers rights to protect themselves and precedent set by the past behaviour of police officers are also worthy of consideration in regards to the amount of force to be used. The use of force must be controlled and confined though is unquestionable (USDOJ, 1999). There can be seen that there are three elements in police discretion that an officer must decide on before making an individual choice regarding the scenario. The first stage is whether the officer should involve himself in the event; however an officer doesn’t sometimes doesn’t have a choice about whether to become involved or not as his/her organisation might send them thereShow MoreRelatedPolice Discretion1244 Words   |  5 Pagesï » ¿ Police Discretion Jocelyn Golphin University of the District of Columbia Criminal Justice System 2/21/2014 Golphin 2 Police discretion is a very important approach in matters concerning criminal justice. There has been a consistent problem between enforcing the law and the spirit of the law. Discretion in the broader sense can be defined as the individual’s ability to make a decision basing on the principle of courses of the action. During trainingRead MorePolice Discretion1050 Words   |  5 PagesPolice Discretion Police discretion is the ability to choose a course of action because of broad limits of power. It refers to the autonomy an officer has in choosing an appropriate course of action (The Police In America, 113). It includes authority to decide which of the various means of helping the helpless, maintaining order, and keeping the peace are best suited to particular circumstances (www.worldandi.com/specialreport/1989/january/Sa15878.htm). The police need to have discretionRead MorePolice Discretion1548 Words   |  7 PagesPolice Discretion David Gonzalez University of Phoenix Introduction to Policing CJA/370 Professor John W. Feltgen June 23, 2005 Abstract In this paper I will discuss police discretion and the use of these discretionary powers in the law enforcement workplace. I will explore the mythical aspects of police discretionary powers and the source of this myth. I will further discuss the control of discretionary authority. I will name instances of law enforcement officials using their discretionary powersRead MorePolice Abuse Of Discretion And Discretion2015 Words   |  9 Pages Police Abuse of Discretion William Powell Jr. American Military University Professor Robert Arruda CMRJ303 Criminology January 17, 2014 Abstract Utilizing the research from several sources and personal experience, this paper will discuss police abuse of discretion. The paper will begin by defining discretion. The paper will examine several types of discretion variables. The paper will discuss its use in the field and office settings. The paper will discussRead MorePolice Discretion1418 Words   |  6 PagesPolice discretion by definition is the power to make decisions of policy and practice. Police have the choice to enforce certain laws and how they will be enforced. Some law is always or almost always enforced, some is never or almost never enforced, and some is sometimes enforced and sometimes not (Davis, p.1). Similarly with discretion is that the law may not cover every situation a police officer encounters, so they must use their discretion wisely. Until 1956, people thought of police discretionRead MoreDefinition Of Discretion And Police Discretion2054 Words   |  9 PagesThe term discretion has several meanings the liberty to decide what should be done in a specific circumstance is one general universal definition. But when dealing with criminal justice and police work the description changes a bit. The criminal justice definition of discretion is Police discretion discusses the authority given to a police officer that allows him or her to decide how to best handle a certain situation. This is designed at increasing the flexibility of the criminal justice systemRead MorePolice Discretion2131 Words   |  9 PagesDiscretion is defined as the authority to make a decision between two or more choices (Pollock, 2010). More specifically, it is defined as â€Å"the capacity to identify and to document criminal and noncriminal events† (Boivin ump; Cordeau, 2011). Every police officer has a great deal of discretion concerning when to use their authority, power, persuasion, or force. Depending on how an officer sees their duty to society will determine an officer’s discretion. Discre tion leads to selective enforcementRead MoreEssay on Police Discretion1425 Words   |  6 PagesPolice Discretion Discretion, uncertainly, and inefficiently are rampant and essential in criminal justice. Nobody expects perfection. That would neither be good nor fair. Justice is a sporting event in which playing fair is more important than winning. Law enactment, enforcement, and administration all involve trading off the possibility of perfect outcomes for security against the worst outcomes. Policing is the most visible part of this: employees on the bottom have more discretion thanRead MoreDisadvantages Of Police Discretion835 Words   |  4 PagesAssignment 2 Discretion can be defined as the availability of choice of options or actions. We all use discretion each and every day with all the decisions we make in our day to day lives. With that being said police also use discretion but theirs have the ability to change people’s lives on the daily basis. They have to make those decisions each and every day not knowing how it will affect the person’s life. Discretion is something that is a very necessary part of police work. One of the reasonRead MoreEssay On Police Discretion1053 Words   |  5 PagesPolice Discretion is one of the many tool officers have a choice to use when making decision in enforcing the law. Officer have the option to use discretion were the officers see fit. They do not have to issue a citation or arrest in many cases a warning many be justified. Many of the outcomes could be determine by several factors which include the subjects attitude, the crime and the person past history. In some cases, a subjectà ¢â‚¬â„¢s social status and financial status in the community have also have

Cxc Past Paper free essay sample

TEST CODE 01239032 CARIBBEAN EXAMINATIONS COUNCIL SECONDARY EDUCATION CERTIFICATE EXAMINATION PRINCIPLES OF ACCOUNTS PAPER 03/2 General Proficiency 1 hour 30 minutes SPECIMEN PAPER READ THE FOLLOWING INSTRUCTIONS CAREFULLY 1. 2. 3. Answer ALL questions. Answer the questions on the Answer Booklet provided and return it. Silent electronic calculators may be used, but ALL necessary working should be clearly shown. Copyright  © 2005 Caribbean Examinations Council. All rights reserved. 01239032/CSEC/SPEC 2005 1 CASE Rose Flower owns a fairly large building situated close to Trimmaine Main Road. The building is situated close to the main transportation routes and Rose feels she could do well supplying goods to small retailers. On January 2, 2005, Rose Flower started her business, â€Å"One Stop Wholesale†, selling drinks and snacks. The assets and liabilities of the business on that date were as follows: $ Building Office furniture Steel shelving Cash register Cash at bank Cash in hand 5 yr 5 per cent loan (Caribbean National Bank) Motor vehicle Stock of goods 90, 000 2, 400 12, 000 1, 300 4, 000 3, 500 30, 000 26, 000 5, 000 The steel shelving will be kept in the business for 7 years after which it will be sold for 00. We will write a custom essay sample on Cxc Past Paper or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page . 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. What type of business entity is â€Å"One Stop Wholesale? (1 mark) State TWO ways in which Rose Flower could increase her capital without additional personal investment. (2 marks) Prepare the opening entries in the General Journal of â€Å"One Stop Wholesale† on January 2, 2005. (7 marks) Calculate the working capital as at January 2, 2005. For what is the working capital in a business used? (3 marks) (1 mark) Open the provision for depreciation account for the steel shelving and record the first year’s depreciation on the asset. 3 marks) Calculate the annual interest on the loan from Caribbean National Bank. (2 marks) 01239032/CSEC/SPEC 2005 2 During the month of January the following information was recorded in the accounts of â€Å"ONE STOP WHOLESALE†: $ Revenue from sale of drinks and snacks Cash purchases Credit purchases Tempco Light and Power Company sent â€Å"One Stop Wholesale† an electricity bill for 4, 500 700 300 800 Rose paid $500 of this amount Rose pays herself a monthly salary of $200 Stock on hand at the end of January 2005, was $3 000 Interest on loan accrues evenly throughout the year. The interest for January has not been paid. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. List THREE expenses, other than those given in the case that the business may incur. (3 marks) Prepare the Trading, Profit and Loss Account for â€Å"One Stop Wholesale† for the month of January, 2005. (12 marks) Prepare the opening balance sheet of â€Å"One Stop Wholesale† as at January 31, 2005. (3 marks) List TWO methods which may be used to value the stock at the end of the year. (2 marks) Calculate the rate of stock turnover for the business. (Show your workings) (1 mark) 01239032/CSEC/SPEC 2005 3

The Jaguar, by Ted Hughes Essay Example

The Jaguar, by Ted Hughes Paper The Jaguar, by Ted Hughes, Ted Hughes explains his admiration for the Jaguar in this poem. The poem is describing a zoo where most of the animals, except the jaguar and the parrots, are being lazy and boring. We can tell this from the way Hughes describes their movement and appearance. He shows his enthusiasm and passion for the jaguar by using many metaphors and hyperboles. Although he does not share the same like towards the parrots, he does go into great detail to describe their actions. He explains how they sell themselves like cheap tarts to the on looking audience and remarks on the way they shriek and walk. One of the most bold and eye-catching ways he shows his enthusiasm for the jaguar is going from the second verse to the third. As the jaguar comes into the poem, he immediately picks up the pace, leaving behind a slow, dull atmosphere created by the other animals. He does this by using descriptive words such as yawn, fatigued, and sleepers, to emphasize the slow pace in the first two verses. He moves on in the third verse using words like runs, and hurrying, and furious. This immediately and effectively shows his overwhelming admiration for the jaguar over the other animals. We will write a custom essay sample on The Jaguar, by Ted Hughes specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on The Jaguar, by Ted Hughes specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on The Jaguar, by Ted Hughes specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer From the first verse and then from the third on, the poet uses enjambment to carry on the feeling on between verses, for example, between the first and second; Fatigued with indolence, tiger and lion Lie still as the sun, This shows how he carries on the feeling without the use of any punctuation when going to the next verse. He does this to add to the feeling of tiredness and slow pace by making the line longer to read without punctuation. At the end of the second verse, the poet describes the majority of the animals as; Painted on a nursery wall. He is showing that these animals look so harmless and tame that they would just be like a simple kids toy and also the fact that their movement is either slow or they are not moving at all. He feels they are so harmless that they remind him of paintings. The pace of the poem is picked up when a crowd of people start to run over and flock beside the jaguars cage, where the jaguar is pacing about on a short fierce fuse, suggesting that the jaguar could explode any minute into a complete fit of rage. This is the poet using words to describe how the jaguar feels to have all of these people crowding round him, watching every move that he makes. But straight after, he then describes the jaguar as if it can not fully accept the fact it is in this cage and acts as if it is its actual habitat, or one day believes that it can escape the zoo and get back to its original place of living, but theres no cage to him. In the final verse, the poet begins to sum up and changes his tune towards the jaguar;more than a visionary to his cell, he is basically saying it does not care about who or what is around it; it is just looking to the future. He adds to his feelings for the jaguar by exaggerating somewhat how the crowds are just waiting to see what he will do next, the world rolls over the thrust of his heel. Here, the poet is using hyperbole to exaggerate his feelings towards the jaguar and make out as if the jaguar is the most important thing in the world at that time, when quite simply it is no where near. In this poem, the poet, Ted Hughes expresses his enthusiasm towards the subject by describing the jaguars superiority over the other animals in the zoo. All of this is extremely effective in aiding his description and highlighting the uniqueness of the jaguar to the rest. Overall this poem gave good decisive descriptions of movement and of setting and showed the poets likes and dislike towards animals clearly and understandably.

#65279;Tchaikovsky

#65279;Tchaikovsky Peter Ilyich Tchaikovsky Peter Ilyick Tchaikovsky was born on May 7th, 1840 in Votkinsk, Russia. He was born second in a family of five sons. Tchaikovsky seemed to have a natural talent for music since he was young. At age five he started to take Piano lessons from his teacher Maria Markovna Palchikova and soon became better than her. As a pre-teenager, he attended school at St.Petersberg. His mother died in 1854 due to cholera. Peter again took piano lessons, this time with Rudolf Kundinger. In his youth, he continued to study law, attending the School of Jurisprudence although he found it quite boring and stopped. Tchaikovsky became rebellious to his family when he quit his job as a clerk for the Ministry of Justice, and began to study music at St. Petersberg Conservatory. Among his hobbies at the time were going to the Italian Operas (which were very popular in Russia at the time) and listening to Mozart.Saint Petersburg Conservatory, where Rimsky-Korsak...Due to his lack of educa tion though, at age 21, he could not tell how many symphonies Beethoven had composed.Tchaikovsky was first tutored by Zaremba, who taught him harmony and theory, although at the time Peter did not know if he wanted to be a musician or not. Anton Rubinstein was his next teacher, who taught him composition. There he composed the overture to "The Storm" and Overture in F (which he also conducted). In 1866 he moved to Moscow accepting a teaching job in a new conservatory along with Nicholas Rubinstein, Anton's brother. There he composed his first symphony, "Winter Dreams"(in G Minor). This symphony was significant because it was composed at night where he was having insomnia, along with headaches and hallucinations. This is why he was said to have never composed at night ever again.In 1874, Tchaikovsky composed the concerto in B flat Minor, which he was going to dedicate to his teacher Nicholas, but Nicholas criticized his work. He later composes symphony number 4 in F Minor. Tchaikovsk y was married to Anotonina Ivanovna Milyukov, but they later separated. Peter Tchaikovsky moved to a country house of at Maidanovo, and continued his Manfred, with help from Balakirev. At age 35, he produced what might me his most famous opera, Swan Lake in 1875.In 1888, Tchaikovsky made a highly successful international concert tour as conductor, meeting at Leipzig Brahms, Grieg and others, at Prague Dvorak, at Paris Gounod, Massenet, and Paderewski. Finishes his Fifth Symphony, in E Minor. Three years later, he Visits America, and conducts his own compositions at the ceremonies opening Carnegie Hall, New York. In 1890, he had the production of the opera Sleeping Beauty. In 1892, he has the first performance of the Nutcracker Suite.In the last years of his life, Peter returned to his country house at Klin in January of 1893, and begins his Symphony No.6, the "Pathetic." He later went to England in June to receive an honorary degree from Cambridge University, together with other fam ous composers like Boito, Bruch, Saint-Saens and Grieg. The Sixth Symphony performed under his direction at the St.Petersburg on Oct. 28, without marked success. In November 6, 1893 Tchaikovsky died. Reasons for his death are controversial. Some say that he developed cholera and dies in St.Petersburg others say that he committed suicide by taking poison to escape accusations of homosexuality.Operas Names Dates Composed The Voyevode 1867-68 Undine 1869 The Oprichnik 1870-72 Vakula the Smith 1874, 1875 Eugenen Onegin 1877-78 The Maid of Orleans 1878-79, 1882 Mazeppa 1881-83 Tcherevichky Oxana's Caprices 1885 Queen of Spades 1890 Iolanthe 1891 Ballets Names Dates Composed Swan Lake 1875-76 The Sleeping Beauty 1875-76 The Nutcracker 1891-92 Dmitri the Pretender introduction to Act 1 1870 Snow Maiden 1873 domovoy scene in The Voyevode 1886 Hamlet 1891

3 causas para que te quiten la green card

3 causas para que te quiten la green card La green card, o tarjeta de residencia permanente, es un privilegio otorgado por la autoridades estadounidenses a extranjeros que cumplen con ciertos requisitos y que permite trabajar y residir en Estados Unidos. Pero la pueden quitar por 3 causas. Antes de comenzar a explicar cada una de esas 3 causas, es conveniente comenzar destacando que hay dos tipos de green card. En primer lugar, la condicional que se da en 2 casos: cuando se adquiere por inversià ³n a travà ©s de una EB-5 y en ciertos casos en los que se saca por matrimonio con un ciudadano (no en todos). Estas residencias condicionales se convierten en permanentes  a los dos aà ±os, despuà ©s de hacer ciertos trmites legales. Por otro lado, si no se levanta la condicionalidad, la green card deja de tener validez y tambià ©n se puede revocar si no se cumplen las condiciones para levantar dicha condicionalidad. Por ejemplo, que la inversià ³n no sea la adecuada o que el matrimonio hubiese acabado en divorcio. Y en segundo lugar, estn las tarjetas de residencia permanentes. Estas son, en principio, para toda la  vida. Excepto en casos muy concretos en los que el gobierno puede decidir que cancela o revoca o considera no vlida una tarjeta de residencia. Causas para perder la green card o tarjeta de residencia permanente La green card puede perderse cuando se da alguna de las siguientes 3 causas:   Fraude- Bajo esta categorà ­a entran acciones muy diversas, como por ejemplo, un matrimonio de conveniencia con el à ºnico propà ³sito de conseguir la green card. Pero hay ms: mentir en un formulario migratorio o, incluso, ocultar informacià ³n relevante en uno de los trmites. En el momento en que se descubre el fraude se puede invalidar la green card.Condena por ciertos delitos- Se trata de situaciones graves debià ©ndose prestar atencià ³n a los casos de condenas por los denominados delitos agravados. En caso de tener en contra una acusacià ³n por este tipo de delitos es fundamental contar con la defensa de un abogado criminalista con conocimiento en posibles efectos migratorios de una condena. En estos casos, despuà ©s de cumplir con la condena, el migrante se enfrenta muy seriamente a la posibilidad de quedarse sin la green card y ser deportado.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  3. Abandono- Esto sucede cuando el inmigrante no cumple con su obligacià ³n de residir habitualmente en los Estados Unidos. Por ello, hay que ser prudentes con los tiempos que se pasan en otros paà ­ses, particularmente si se trata de ms de 180 dà ­as y menos de 1 aà ±os. Y tambià ©n saber que puede resultar muy conflictivo el hecho de entrar a trabajar a diario a Estados Unidos pero vivir en Mà ©xico o en Canad. En los puentes internacionales con Mà ©xico se ha dado casos de migrantes legales a los que se ha alentado para que renunciaran voluntariamente a la green card, cosa que si quieren no estn obligados a hacer (ver ms al final de este apartado). Adems, en los casos de estancia fuera de Estados Unidos por ms de 1 aà ±o pero menos de dos se necesitar un permiso de reentrada.   Si es ms de 2 aà ±os la duracià ³n de la estancia en otro paà ­s, no hay problemas si se trata del cà ³nyuge o hijos menores y solteros de personal civil o militar o similares de los Estados Unidos y que est estacionado en el extranjero. En los dems casos a veces se puede solicitar una visa SB-1 como residente que quiere retornar pero que sà ³lo se concede si se cumplen requisitos muy estrictos. El formulario a llenar es el formulario que se conoce como DS-117. En los dems casos de pà ©rdida de la tarjeta de residencia por abandono sà ³lo es posible recuperarla iniciando de nuevo todo el proceso y esperando mientras tanto fuera de los Estados Unidos.   Es muy importante que si se llega a un punto migratorio de ingreso a Estados Unidos y el oficial asegura que se ha producido un abandono de la residencia que el residente permanente se niegue a firmar el documento que se conoce como I-407 Abandonment of LPR Status. Si lo hace, pierde la consideracià ³n de residente. Por el contrario debe solicitar ver a un juez migratorio y se le debe entregar una Notice of Appear para presentarse en Corte. Sà ³lo asà ­ se le puede quitar la tarjeta de residencia despuà ©s de que el juez encuentre de forma clara e inequà ­voca y basndose en evidencia de que verdaderamente se ha abandonado el estatus de residente. En otras palabras, no firmar el I-407 en ningà ºn punto de control migratorio y pedir ir a Corte. Otros requisitos de los residentes permanentes La tarjeta de la green card es vlida por diez aà ±os. Debe renovarse antes de que expire. Asimismo, si se pierde o se mutila debe aplicarse por una nueva y notificar su extravà ­o, robo o destruccià ³n a las autoridades migratorias. La à ºnica excepcià ³n es cuando se solicita y obtiene la ciudadanà ­a por naturalizacià ³n. Una vez que se es ciudadano ya no hay que renovar nada. Los tiempos de espera para solicitarla depende de cà ³mo se haya obtenido la residencia. Finalmente, los residentes permanentes tienen otras obligaciones, como pagar impuestos o notificar los cambios de domicilio. Consejos para conservar la green card Por ley, todos los residentes legales permanentes mayores de 18 aà ±os deben llevar consigo en todo momento prueba de su estatus migratorio. El no cumplimiento de este requisito puede dar lugar a una condena por faltas. La aplicacià ³n de esta ley varà ­a muchà ­simo de estado a estado. Para aprender ms sobre la green card, los derechos que da y las obligaciones que impone es aconsejable tomar este test de respuestas mà ºltiples. Da respuesta a las inquietudes ms frecuentes. Este es un artà ­culo informativo. No es asesorà ­a legal.

The International Committee of the Red Cross Research Paper

The International Committee of the Red Cross - Research Paper Example The ICRC runs operates by depending on donations from well-wishers, governments, Private corporations and the societies that operate under the umbrella of the ICRC. The ICRC in made up of the Red Crescent Movement and many national Red Cross Societies from different parts of the world. These partners are usually contacted to assist in cases of conflict and disasters. Though the ICRC has the permanent international mandate to conduct its activities due to the Geneva Conventions, it still is a private organization operating under the Swiss law The ICRC offers monetary assistance to its member organizations to assist them in their day to day operations and for humanitarian work. The best performing societies are also awarded as recognition of their hard work so as to motivate them to keep up the good work. Organizational Structure The ICRC structure comprises of an Assembly, an Assembly Council and a Directorate. The Council has specifically delegated powers with regard to specific matt ers concerning the ICRC. The Directorate acts as the executive body of the ICRC. The Assembly is made up of 25 members who are of Swiss nationality. The organization is currently chaired by Jakob Kellenberger, Ph.D. It also has two vice presidents to who assist the chair. The Directorate is made up of five members. The Directorate is headed by a Director-General. International advisors are usually appointed by the ICRC to serve for a period of four years. Their work is to advise the ICRC on policy issues and decision making. They help the organization to deal with political and humanitarian issues encountered in a professional manner in accordance with internationally accepted conventions. Apart from the top administrators, the ICRC has a network of national Red Cross societies that are headed by national executive directors. These directors coordinate the societies on behalf of the umbrella body to facilitate smooth operation of the organization. Operations The ICRC dedicates itsel f to alleviation and prevention of any form of human suffering as a result of war or natural disasters such as epidemics and floods. The organization is divided into subgroups to ensure proper distribution of manpower. It consists of the ICRC, the IFRC, the national Red Cross societies present in186 nations and the Red Crescent Societies. All these organizations work under the umbrella body that is the International Committee of the Red Cross. The ICRC main mission is to protect human lives during armed conflicts and other violent occasions and provide necessary aid to the victims. It serves to look after the interests of the most vulnerable and alleviate their suffering. The societies that operate at the national level are meant to assist their respective governments when a crisis situation arises. Their mandate is to provide social programs, health services where necessary and also assist in disaster relief. In the event of war, they should assist civilians and at the same time ca ter for the armed forces. For any national society to be part of the movement, it must seek permission from the ICRC after which it can be counted as a member of the International Federation.

Iran's nuclear possession Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Iran's nuclear possession - Essay Example rguments "for" nd "ginst" Irn's power to use nucler wepon re provided s well s conclusions bout the issue given in the end of the pper. Irn is the poster-child for the nexus of terrorism nd WMD. It is the world's foremost stte-sponsor of terrorism, s well s one of the countries most ctively pursuing nucler wepons. Wshington is vigilnt bout Irn's support for network of Islmist terrorist orgniztions nd persistent in pressing Irn to end its finncil, politicl, mteril, nd opertionl support to them. Recently, Bush nd the Pentgon hve clled Irn "rogue ntion" ( Third World stte tht possesses wepons of mss destruction nd sponsors terrorism). Irn is depicted s sort of regime, supposedly pursuing nucler, chemicl nd biologicl wepons cpbility nd missile delivery systems, tht justifies the building of missile defences. Like North Kore, the Pentgon in fct needs Irn to ct "s the bd guy" nd hs little interest right now in ltering its "behviour". Current president of Irn, Mhmoud hmdinejd, ws not much better known when he entered the presidentil election cmpign, lthough he hd lredy mde his mrk s Tehrn myor for rowing bck on erlier reforms. Since his election he hs tken tough stnd on number of foreign policy mtters, in line with his hrd-line bckground. His comments tht Isrel should be "wiped off the mp" nd tht the Holocust ws "myth" drew widespred condemntion from the West. However, to proceed with tht gol, president needs tobe empowered to ct nd mke decisions, which in Irn is n unlimited option since Irn's Islmic constitution provides n extrordinry concentrtion of executive power not in the hnds of the elected president but in those of the Supreme Leder, or vli-ye fqih, ppointed by council of clerics dominted by hrd-liners. In fct, the Irnin president wields less rel power thn perhps ny other elected chief executive in the world. This new constitution defines the Islmic Republic s new kind of stte, one ruled by qulified Islmi c jurists until the missing Twelfth Imm, the lst rightful ruler who disppered in 941, mkes his nticipted return to erth to usher in the ge of perfect justice. rguments ginst Irn obtining nucler power Militnt Islm is tody's engine of interntionl terror. Islmist schools breed new militnt genertion, Islmist sermons mobilize opinion ginst the free world, Islmist ideology legitimizes recourse to terror nd Islmist "chrities" bnkroll the globl network of terror. While most Muslim sttes re wre of this thret to the world nd their own stbility, there is one tht is ctully governed by Islmists: The Islmic Republic of Irn. Therefore, the principl component of the wr ginst terrorism should be the wr ginst mitnt Islm, which over the lst 20 decdes hs been inspired, nurtured, nd funded by the Islmic Government of Irn. The demise of the clericl regime in Irn would go long wy in "drining the swmp" of militncy nd rdiclism in the broder Muslim world with enormous geopoliticl consequences for U.S. ntionl security interests. Therefore, the permnent success of this cmpign rests on regime chnge in Irn. In short, the United Sttes fces

Suggest me a good topic Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Suggest me a good topic - Term Paper Example Subway Restaurant has been its major strength that has seen it occupy an appropriate competitive advantage in the food industry. The restaurant offers fast food services such as; turkey breast, roasted beef, steak, cold cut combo, cheese, subway melt et cetera. Moreover, the restaurant provides different types of beverages to its customers. Description of the Products and Services The products offered by the Wali subway restaurant are of good quality and standards. For instance; the mouth-watering turkey and roasted beef salad with raspberry vinaigrette from exclusively selected recipes of canola oil, diced red onions and avocado, cooked and chopped turkey breast, reduced fat feta cheese perfectly crushed, walnuts, and arugula. The mixture hysterically prepared and spray backed to give a great taste. For the raspberry vinaigrette the combined ingredients of balsamic vinegar, canola oil, lemon juice, Dijon mustard, raspberry jam, fresh ground black pepper and salt to taste placed into a medium-sized bowl the whisked thoroughly until the dressing is smooth enough and the jam is properly dissolved. The restaurant also serves Monterey jack Taquitos and backed shredded beef, a meal that is children friendly and very tasty. To make this meal the chef uses high quality ingredients of chill powder garlic powder, lime juice, adobe sauce with little chili pepper, chopped yellow and red bell pepper, cooked and shredded roast beef, boneless blade roast, and canola cooking spray. The menu offered by the Wali subway restaurant makes an effort to create a healthy diet by utilizing clean and up to standard products in a clean environment. The restaurant also takes into consideration a special group of its customers such as the vegetarians by offering old-fashioned food strictly for vegetarians. Variety of this special menu include kuja, matar, badem, and gobhi that are mostly served with mint chutney, tamarind chutney, paneer, mixed vegetable pickle, sauteed smash of sweet pum pkin, and fenugreek. The special drinks offered in this place include sweet lassi that is often served with kulhars. In order to reach out for the customers and for the convenience the customers, Wali restaurant offers an online menu and online services where customers can place orders and make inquiries in the day's specialty. The restaurant also offers room booking services online. Opportunities for the products Selection of products and services offered by the Wali restaurant involves an appropriate identification and mobilization of resources after undertaking economic and social facets analysis. For this reason, Wali restaurant management has to take part fully in the interaction with their potential customers in order to get acquainted with their social and economic conditions. Those customers, who participated, provided the human resource of Wali restaurant with important information and referrals on the products and services that could be offered by the restaurant. These inf ormation and ideas are then supplemented with details obtained from assessment of the area around Manassas, Virginia where the restaurant was located. Reintegration of the already existing restaurants and the products and services they offered was also done. With this information the Wali restaurant decided to offer a variety of products including turkey breast, roasted beef, steak, cold cut combo, cheese, subway melt et cetera since Virginia was multi-ethnic with diverse culture. The management also considered

Testing Drug Content of Famotidine Core Tablets

Testing Drug Content of Famotidine Core Tablets 6. Formulation development and evaluation 6.1 Preparation of core tablets Core tablets of famotidine were prepared by direct compression and batch size was kept as 100 tablets. Drug , sodium chloride, polymer and MCC were co-sifted through sieve # 30 Now the blend is mixed in polybag for 10 min Citric acid was crushed using mortar and pestle and sifted through sieve # 60 And this is added to above blend and mixed in a polybag for 10 min. Then magnesium stearate talc were passed through sieve #60 and to the above blend and mixing continued for another 2 min Now the blend is compressed to tablets having the average weight of 180 mg using 8 mm round concave punch and at low relative humidity 20 % RH 6.2 Coating of core tablets: 6.2.1. Preparation of coating solution: 5 ml of water was taken in a beaker and to this required amount of PEG 400 was added and dissolved 95 ml of acetone was taken in a beaker and stirred at 150 rpm using electrical stirrer to this above solution was added and stirred for 5 min Now to the above solution 5 gm of cellulose acetate was added slowly and stirring is continued for another 30 min i.e until a clear solution was formed. 6.2.2. Procedure for coating of semi permeable membrane: Coating was done using RD Lab Coater. Core tablets were placed in the coating pan and coated with cellulose acetate solution coating parameters are maintained as below: Inlet temperature : 40 oC  ± 2 oC Bed temperature: 35 oC rpm of pan: 15 -17 Spray rate: 3-7 ml/min Atomizing air pressure: 2.0 psi Coating was done until required weight gain was achieved Drilling of orifice: The orifice was made using needles of different sizes i.e, 24, 22 guage INGREDIENTS F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6 Core tablet mg/tablet Famotidine 40 40 40 40 40 40 Citric acid 20 20 20 20 20 20 Sodium chloride 50 50 50 50 50 50 HPMC k100M 9 18 Polyox1105 7.2 Polyox 301 7.2 Polyox303 7.2 Sodium lauryl sulphate 3.6 3.6 3.6 3.6 3.6 3.6 Magnesium stearate 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 Talc 3.6 3.6 3.6 3.6 3.6 3.6 Avicel PH 102 43 43 53.8 53.8 53.8 53.8 Total wt of tablet 180 180 180 180 180 180 Coating solution Cellulose acetate 5 gm 15 % w/w of total solids (0.669 ml) 4 ml Upto 100 ml 4% PEG 400 Water Acetone Weight gain Coated tablets were left over night for drying Table 6.8 Formulation trails for optimum polymer (using various grades of HPMC and PEO) Table6.9 Formulation trails for optimum polymer concentration and coating weight gain INGREDIENTS F7 F8 F9 Core tablet mg/tablet Famotidine 40 40 40 Citric acid 20 20 20 Sodium chloride 50 50 50 Polyox 301 10.8 10.8 10.8 Avicel PH 102 50.8 50.8 50.8 Sodium lauryl sulphate 3.6 3.6 3.6 Magnesium stearate 1.8 1.8 1.8 Talc 3.6 3.6 3.6 Total wt of tablet 180 180 180 Coating solution Cellulose acetate 5 gm PEG 400 15 % w/w of total solids (0.669 ml) Water 4 ml Acetone Upto 100 ml Weight gain 4 % 3 % 5 % Table 6.10 Formulation trails of optimum plasticizer concentration INGREDIENTS F 10 F 11 F 12 Core tablet mg/tablet Famotidine 40 40 40 Citric acid 20 20 20 Sodium chloride 50 50 50 Polyox 301 10.8 10.8 10.8 Avicel pH 102 50.8 50.8 50.8 Sodium lauryl sulphate 3.6 3.6 3.6 Magnesium stearate 1.8 1.8 1.8 Talc 3.6 3.6 3.6 Total wt of tablet 180 180 180 Coating solution Cellulose acetate 5 gm 5 gm 5 gm PEG 400 (% w/w of total solids) 20% (0.89 ml) 25% (1.25 ml) 35% (1.4 ml) Water 4 ml 4 ml 4 ml Acetone Upto 100 ml Upto 100 ml Upto 100 ml Weight gain 4% 4% 4% 6.3 Evaluation of blend 6.3.1 Angle of repose Angle of repose: Weighed quantity of the drug was passed through a funnel kept at a height 2 cm from the base. The powder is passed till it forms a heap and touches the tip of the funnel. The radius the base of the conical pile, and the height of pile were measured and the angle of repose was calculated using the formula: (h/r) h = height of the pile r = radius of the base of the conical pile Table 6.4 Flow property and corresponding angle of repose Flow property Angle of repose (ÆÅ ¸) Excellent 25 – 30 Good 31 – 35 Fair-no need of aid 36 – 40 Passable –hang up chances 41 – 45 Poor – must vibrate, agitate 46 – 55 Very poor 56 – 65 Very, very poor >66 Formulation code Angle of repose F1 25.45 F2 22.92 F3 23.13 F4 19.20 F5 18.62 F6 17.20 F7 20.09 Table no. : Data for angle of repose of all formulations 6.3.2 Bulk density An accurately weighed quantity of powder carefully poured into graduated cylinder. Then after pouring the powder into the graduated cylinder the powder bed was made uniform without disturbing. Then the volume was measured directly from the graduation marks on the cylinder as ml. The volume measure was called as the bulk volume and the bulk density is calculated by following formula: Bulk density = Weight of powder / Bulk volume Tapped Density: After measuring the bulk volume the same measuring cylinder was set into tap density apparatus. The tap density apparatus was set to 300 taps drop per minute and operated for 500 taps. Volume was noted as (Va) and again tapped for 750 times and volume was noted as (Vb). If the difference between Va and Vb not greater than 2% then Vb is consider as final tapped volume. The tapped density is calculated by the following formula: Tapped density = Weight of powder / Tapped volume Compressibility Index: It gives the flow property of the granules. More is the compressibility; less will be the flow property. It was calculated by the following formula using previously obtained bulk and tapped densities. Carrs index = Tapped density Bulk density X 100 Tapped Density Hausner Ratio: It is used for flow property of the granules. It was also calculated from bulk and tapped densities using following formula: Hausners ratio = Tapped density / Bulk density Table 6.3 Flow property and corresponding Carrs index Hausner ratio Flow property C.I ( % ) Hausner ratio Excellent ≠¤10 1.00 – 1.11 Good 11 – 15 1.12 – 1.18 Fair 16 – 20 1.19 – 1.25 Passable 21 – 25 1.26 – 1.34 Poor 26 – 31 1.35 – 1.45 Very poor 32 – 37 1.46 – 1.59 Very, very poor >38 >1.60 Formulation code Bulk density (gm/cm3) Tapped density (gm/cm3) Carr’s index (%) Haussners ratio Angle of repose F1 0.486 0.631 22.9 1.25 25.45 F2 0.410 0.513 20.08 1.25 22.92 F3 0.438 0.601 18.259 1.18 23.13 F4 0.436 0.583 16.39 1.196 19.20 F5 0.430 0.520 17.31 1.21 18.62 F6 0.462 0.535 13.64 1.16 17.20 F7 0.446 0.523 14.72 1.17 20.09 Table no. : Data for Bulk density, Tapped density, Compressibility index and Hausner’s ratio of all formulations 6.4 Post compression studies 6.4.1 Weight variation The average weight of core tablets and coated tablets were determined using a digital weighing balance. 20 tablets were selected randomly from each batch and weighed individually, calculating the average weight and comparing the individual tablet weight to the average. From this, percentage weight difference was calculated. Table 6.11 Limits of weight variation IP/BP Limit USP 80 mg or less 10% 130mg or less More than 80mg or Less than 250mg 7.5% 130mg to 324mg 250mg or more 5% More than 324mg Table no. : Data for weight variation test of all formulations Formulation Code Avg weight (mean ±%deviation) Before Coating After Coating F1 178.42 ± 1.02 185.72 ±1.12 F2 181.31 ± 0.91 188.79 ±1.45 F3 179.21 ±1.34 187.89 ±1.09 F4 181.39 ±0.98 189.01 ±0.98 F5 179.76 ±1.32 186.96 ±1.42 F6 183.12 ±2.24 190.32 ±1.08 F7 180.09 ±1.08 187.34 ±1.12 F8 178.12 ±1.24 184.52 ±1.33 F9 179.35 ±1.02 187.01 ±1.14 F10 180.45 ±0.98 188.00 ±1.11 F11 181.32 ±1.23 188.67 ±1.28 F12 182.45 ±1.11 189.79 ±1.20 Hardness Hardness indicates the ability of a tablet to withstand mechanical shocks while handling. Hardness of both core and coated tablets were determined using a Monsanto hardness tester. It is expressed in kg/cm2. Three tablets were randomly picked from each batch and analyzed for hardness. The mean and standard deviation were also calculated. Table no. : Data for hardness of all formulations Formulation Code Hardness (kg/cm2)(n=3) (mean ±SD) Before Coating After Coating F1 5.06 ±0.19 6.18 ±0.22 F2 5.21 ±0.26 6.29 ±0.42 F3 4.96 ±0.32 6.03 ±0.15 F4 5.02 ±0.22 6.41 ±0.32 F5 5.28 ±0.18 6.17 ±0.18 F6 5.11 ±0.33 6.25 ±0.28 F7 4.89 ±0.25 6.00 ±0.33 F8 4.99 ±0.14 6.32 ±0.36 F9 5.08 ±0.18 6.75 ±0.25 F10 4.99 ±0.25 5.98 ±0.12 F11 5.12 ±0.33 5.90 ±0.21 F12 4.97 ±0.10 5.96 ±0.19 Friability (F) It is the phenomenon whereby tablet surfaces are damaged and/or show evidence of lamination or breakage when subjected to mechanical shock or attrition. The  friability of core tablets was determined using Roche Friabilator. It is expressed in percentage (%). Twenty core tablets were initially weighed (Winitial) and transferred into friabilator. The friabilator was operated at 25 rpm for 4 minutes or run up to 100 revolutions. The tablets were weighed again (Wfinal). The % friability was then calculated % Friability = ((A-B)/A) Ãâ€" 100 Where, Formulation Code Friability (%) (n=10) F1 0.010 F2 0.015 F3 0.017 F4 0.012 F5 0.009 F6 0.016 F7 0.014 F8 0.013 F9 0.012 F10 0.015 F11 0.014 F12 0.012 A = Initial weight of tablets B = Final weight of tablets after 100 revolutions Friability of tablets less than 1% are considered acceptable. Drug content The famotidine core tablets were tested for their drug content. Five tablets were finely powdered; quantities of the powder equivalent to 100 mg of famotidine were accurately weighed and transferred to a 100 ml of volumetric flask. Made up to 100ml with 4.5 phosphate buffer. From the above solution 1ml was taken and made up to100 ml with phosphate buffer (pH 4.5) From the above solution 10 ml was taken and made up to100 ml with phosphate buffer (pH 4.5) i.e.,10 µg/ml solution and measure the absorbance of the resulting solution at 265 nm using a Shimadzu UV-visible spectrophotometer. The linearity equation obtained from calibration curve was used for estimation of famotidine in the tablet formulations. Formulation Code Assay (%) F1 99.25 ±0.042 F2 98.32 ±0.052 F3 99.15 ±0.016 F4 99.52 ±0.019 F5 101.95 ±0.021 F6 99.25 ±0.034 F7 99.98 ±0.028 F8 98.74 ±0.052 F9 98.23 ±0.061 F10 100.12 ±0.011 F11 99.52 ±0.021 F12 99.56 ±0.023 Table no. : Data for drug content of all formulations In-Vitro Dissolution Studies The developed formulations of were subjected in vitro dissolution studies using USP Type II dissolution apparatus (Electrolab, India) with a speed of 50 rpm. The dissolution study was carried out in 900 ml dissolution media maintained at 37 ±0.5 oC. At suitable time interval, 10 ml samples were withdrawn and replaced with equivalent amount of fresh medium to maintain sink conditions. Samples withdrawn were filtered and analyzed at 265 nm using a UV spectrophotometer. After analyzing the drug content in the dissolution samples, cumulative percentage of drug release versus time was plotted. The general conditions for in vitro dissolution studies are as summarized below. Dissolution conditions: Medium : 4.5 phosphate buffer Volume: 900 ml Temperature: 37  °C  ± 0.5  °C Apparatus: USP Type-II (paddle) Rpm: 50 Time intervals : 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 12 hr Samples were suitably diluted and absorbance was measured. Cumulative percentage drug released was calculated for each batch. The study was performed in triplicate and the average was reported. Table no. : In-Vitro data drug release data for formulation F-1 S.no Time Cumulative % drug release 1 0 0 2 1 2.81 ±2.75 3 2 4.00 ±1.64 4 3 6.67 ±2.56 5 4 10.61 ±1.98 6 5 13.07 ±2.84 7 6 16.31 ±1.27 8 7 18.56 ±1.32 9 8 21.86 ±0.99 10 10 27.07 ±1.46 11 12 32.76 ±1.21 Figure no. : In-Vitro drug release of formulation F-1 Table no. : In-Vitro data drug release data for formulation F-2 S.no Time Cumulative % drug release 1 0 0 2 1 2.10 ±2.84 3 2 4.21 ±1.95 4 3 7.52 ±2.95 5 4 10.61 ±2.09 6 5 13.07 ±1.95 7 6 16.31 ±2.75 8 7 18.56 ±2.94 9 8 21.86 ±1.24 10 10 32.16 ±1.89 11 12 40.79 ±1.11 Figure no. : In-Vitro drug release of formulation F-2 Table no. : In-Vitro data drug release data for formulation F-3 S.no Time Cumulative % drug release 1 0 0 2 1 4.02 ±3.72 3 2 8.04 ±1.34 4 3 13.34 ±2.83 5 4 18.63 ±1.52 6 5 22.90 ±1.32 7 6

Pram Lady and Forbidden Clothes

An important idea in both â€Å"The Pram Lady† by Vivien Alcock and â€Å"Forbidden Clothes† by Jamila Gavin is how people are unaccepting of differences. This is important to me because people should be able to be themselves without being hassled or excluded, also because people my age are not very accepting of others' differences. In the â€Å"Pram Lady† Helena does not accept the way her mother dresses and behaves. She want her mum to be like other mums with â€Å"dyed hair and a perm† because it reflects badly on her. When William, Helena's new boyfriend, sees Helena's mother and doesn't realize who she is he makes a rude comment about her appearance: â€Å"God, what a fright! What a ridiculous creature! † Helena reacts to this by running away from him and telling him she never wants to see or speak to him again. Even though Helena's mother is â€Å"enormously fat† and wears stained clothes, Helena still will not associate with people who disrespect her mother. This shows us that Helena herself has not accepted her mother for the way she is. From this, I learnt that I should not be so quick to judge others before getting to know them because personality shines through and is the most important thing. Oddly, though Helena doesn't want people saying rude things about her mother, she says those things herself. Helena's mother doesn't mind what people think about her and tells Helena that she should just laugh with her friends when they see her. Helena just wants her mother to be normal, when Helen tells her mum this she responds by saying â€Å"But that's what you want, isn't it, Helena? An ordinary mother like your friends have. † Over time Helena gets stressed by the fact her mother forgets to do regular things like wearing unstained clothes. This doesn't work for either of them because Helena is always worried about her mother and her mother is forced to change into something she isn't to please Helena. I relate to this because girls my age sometimes don't except people for their flaws. Reading this short story made me feel that I should wait until I know someone before judging them. As is in â€Å"The Pram Lady†, â€Å"Forbidden Clothes† also shows the way people are made to feel like outsiders because they have differences from their peers. Nasreen, a girl who is living in the UK never felt different in Pakistan,

International Language and Strategic Inventory Learning Language

Our universe has now become a planetary small town, the clip has long gone when it used to take several months to go from one terminal of the universe to the other, now distance is no more an issue and as distance has shortened the interaction between people from different civilizations and societies have become more frequent beef uping the communicating over the universe. When interacting with people from all over the universe, communicating barrier is faced due to difference in linguistic communication and since it is impractical to larn all the linguistic communications so we have one linguistic communication known as International Language i.e. English which is spoken and understood by a big bulk of people round the Earth. Although it is the female parent linguistic communication of really few states, it is taught and learned in the full universe since larning English has now become a necessity. Learning a new foreign linguistic communication may non be an easy occupation particu larly it requires a batch of forbearance and pattern but it can be made easier and the end can be achieved rapidly if the instruction manner is made harmonizing to the learning manner of an person and this is what Strategic Inventory Learning Language is all about. Learning of linguistic communication in the best manner can be done by first acknowledging our ain acquisition manner and so work on that form. Learning manners can be observed by an person or merely by the acquisition manner checklist. Largely our acquisition manners are developed at really early phases may be pre-school clip or early school life. I found out from the larning manner checklist that I am a Ocular Learner significance that my acquisition abilities are best with the assistance of images, graphs and images. I believe this is because from really get downing of my schooling my parents and instructors emphasized on learning me by demoing or making practical instead than merely reading to me or stating me about it. Normally our acquisition manners are at sub-conscious degree therefore before working to better larning abilities it is of import to acknowledge our manner. A scheme stock list for linguistic communication acquisition is formalized tool that answers the inquiry of what method is best for one peculiar scholar, or group of scholars, to larn a foreign linguistic communication. Harmonizing to the writer Strategic Inventory Learning Language is grouped into five schemes which are memory scheme, cognitive scheme, compensation scheme, meta-cognitive scheme, affectional scheme and societal scheme ( Griffiths and Parr, 251 ) . Normally we follow one or two of the schemes sub-consciously. To recognize our scheme we can detect our acquisition and analyzing wonts or merely make full the SILL inquirer. I found out that my sub-conscious SILL is Cognitive Strategies ; which is that I read for pleasance in English to increase my vocabulary and to guarantee speedy and right sentence formation, besides I try to happen forms in English which enables me to easy discourse in the linguistic communication. As from my larning manner I found that I am a ocular s cholar and so this explains my cognitive scheme that I prefer reading over listening to better my acquisition abilities, since reading helps me to do images of the words in my head moreover, by doing forms I easy retrieve what I have learned. I besides realized that if I have to larn something I do non declaim it several times it alternatively I prefer composing it few times as it helps me to retrieve better as I rapidly absorb the images of the words formed when I had written it down. After all the research about my ain learning manner and the schemes I have been following I feel that now I can expeditiously work upon rushing up my linguistic communication larning procedure and go an independent scholar. Another scheme which I feel I slightly follow is the Social Strategy that is I try to larn by interacting with people who I know have command in English, I besides try to discourse in English and utilize vocabulary in my conversation this is a practical attack towards larning and h ence builds up the assurance which is an of import factor. In future I plan to follow another scheme of SILL which is meta-cognitive i.e. pull offing ain acquisition accomplishments by maintaining a degree Celsius I have check and balance on my advancement and besides guarantee me about how much I have already learned. This scheme will besides enable me to schedule my clip in such a manner that I take out adequate clip to work on my linguistic communication accomplishments on routinely footing. Since I am good at retrieving things that by visual image and I already follow cognitive scheme hence, in order to follow this new scheme I will non hold to alter my acquisition manner hence it will necessitate less attempt and non much clip. Conscious working and acceptance of Strategic Inventory Learning Language will guarantee better acquisition of the linguistic communication in effortless and less clip. Strategic stock list larning linguistic communication is a really utile and efficient agencies to larn linguistic communication as it enables the scholar to larn in the manner that suits them best, this non merely rush up the acquisition procedure but besides develop assurance in the scholar. This strategic attack makes it easier for the scholar to accomplish the end and acquire bid on the linguistic communication. Hence, in order to link to the full universe and feel at easiness when interacting with people of different states holding different linguistic communications it is really of import to larn English and the best and quickest manner to accomplish this end is by following SILL schemes.

Nakamura Lacquer Company Essays

Nakamura Lacquer Company Essays Nakamura Lacquer Company Essay Nakamura Lacquer Company Essay EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Our Company has limited growth in Domestic Market as we are already the best seller. We are having no international business. As classified by the Government of Japan, we cannot invest abroad hence should think seriously about export. The National China Company, the largest manufacturer of good quality dinnerware in United States has offered the annual purchase of 400000 sets of our product at 5% extra price for three years. Semmelback, Semmelbach and Whittacker, Chicago, the largest supplier of hotel and restaurant supplies in Unites States and buyers of dinnerware and similar goods for a number of department stores are willing to represent our â€Å"Chrysanthemum† brand for five years at a) standard commission rates and b) first 20% on all the sales Our Company will make during that time to recover the investment they are bearing for the introduction and promotion in United State. SITUATION ANALYSIS Our company is a market leader in domestic market. We are having no international business. For future growth, Company has to target the other segments of domestic market and to start exporting. Classified by the Government of Japan, We cannot invest money abroad. The National China Company has demanded for fixed order and Semmelback, Semmelbach and Whittacker, Chicago is willing to represent the company in United State. Both the offers can’t be accepted together. STATEMENT OF OPTIONS ?Domestic Market ?International Market Export to other countries. Offer from the National China Company. The offer from Semmelback, Semmelbach and Whittacker, Chicago. CRITERIA OF EVALUATION 1. Existing production level 2. Investment 3. Selling price 4. Profit 5. Brand Value 6. Time period required 7. Risk involved 8. Market segments EVALUATION OF OPTIONS 1. Existing production level: A substantial business, employing several thousand labors and production of 500000 sets of lacquer table ware each year so as to meet the demand from domestic market. Significant changes need to be done in the Company to trade internationally. 2. Growth: Company has a limited growth in Domestic Market as we are already the best seller. We are having a very little or no international business. The first offer enables us 80% more efficient company than the existing one after three years. While the second offer brings more potential in company’s growth in United State. 3. Investment: Optimum utilization of available resources is required if we need to cut down the expenses incurred in meeting the new demand. For domestic market, there will be no major rise in production cost whereas for international business, cost involved is more for changes required in meeting the standards of other countries, labor cost, expansion of production set up and company set up as the demand will be 80% in first offer and for second offer, demand may rise to a couple of million sets. . Market segments: We need to launch the new brand with better quality to tap high-class consumers in Japan. The other market segments like Hotel and Restaurant have to be identified. 5. Selling price: No major increase in price is applicable in domestic market. In case of other market segments, the price is to be comparable with price of existing. In export increase in price is more applicable. First offer has assured 5% increase in price where as in second offer; higher prices can be induced as the customers are like Hotels and restaurants. 6. Profit: The overall profit will be less initially if company introduces brands for segments in domestic market and will grow in the long run but the percent profit will be more or less same. The overall profit and profit percent will be more in the long run if company opts for export. First offer promises fixed rise of 5% in profit percent whereas in second offer overall profit and change in percent profit depends on the response from the customers. 7. Brand Value: Company will achieve more stability in domestic market as we will have brands for different market segments. First offer doesn’t contribute in brand establishment whereas in second offer, after five years brand will be established in United State and company will be globally projected. 8. Time period required: Time period may vary as per the response of the other market segments to our brands. In the first offer, after three years, company will be potentially double than the existing one whereas in the second offer, minimum of five years are required to establish the brand. The time period may be more than five years if the response of the customers not found positive. 9. Risk involved: Expansion of business in domestic market is less risky as our company is well established. First offer brings no risk as the offer is fixed in quantity and price whereas in second offer, the risk involved is very high. If the response turned out to be less promising, the cost incurred in increasing the production level, set up will be hard to recover. RECOMMENDATIONS 1. To invest for other market segments in Japan. 2. The company should accept the first offer. 3. The company should look at the similar opportunities as the second offer for the business in other countries. ACTION PLAN: 1. A market survey of Japan to understand the exact need from the different segments. 2. Evaluation of our company’s current production capacity. Optimization of labor cost. 3. Survey of international market to understand the requirements from different countries and to know the major competitors available and their market share. CONTINGENCY PLAN: ?We need not worry about the possibility of failure while meeting the demand generated by The National china Company. ?Failure to tap the other segments of domestic market will not cost the company much.

Challenges in Refrigerated or Frozen Chicken Productions Business Essay Example

Challenges in Refrigerated or Frozen Chicken Productions Business Essay Example Challenges in Refrigerated or Frozen Chicken Productions Business Essay Challenges in Refrigerated or Frozen Chicken Productions Business Essay Refrigerated or frozen chicken production is a really good deal as a business. Almost everyone eats chicken, and almost no house has a fridge with no chicken inside it. But as entrepreneurs still there are challenges in having this business officially. In my essay, I’m going to mention some of the challenges I’m going to face as an entrepreneur incase I wanted this business to exist in my country Saudi Arabia, and how I might have to find substitute solutions so that my business doesn’t end up with failure like some other businesses. The first issue is that the competitors in the same market are driving the bridges; there are really big competitors in the market. And other than that is that the competitor’s affectation is less because of their production’s volume. They can product a lot in a short time and sell it with the lowest prices which grows the company really fast and makes competition a really hard thing for others that would have the same business. Another issue is that for refrigerated or frozen chicken production we should use pure natural medications instead of the chemical ones which cost a lot more of course, and because of this issue our revenues will grow less because we’ll have to spend more in expanding the volume of our quality. Other issues exist as well such as the lack of price competition which we can’t have because of the low cost in other firms, as we mentioned earlier the competitors’ production is very large which is the thing that really makes them sell their products with the least they can, so what we can do is compete in the quality by using natural medication, because our product then will be more trustable and everyone would want to buy which will be the good thing about our product. Last but not least are the license issues. The government almost never gives the license unless the conditions were required such as employ a specific number of citizens, a specific amount of investment that should be earned, and other conditions that not every business can include in their business plan. These were the issues with some solutions that I thought can be useful for them. Like every business there has to be issues, but as well as there are issues, solutions have got to have somewhere.

Linkedin Understanding a Statement of Rights and Responsibilities Case Study

Linkedin Understanding a Statement of Rights and Responsibilities - Case Study Example The user agreement clearly specifies that agreeing to the terms of the user agreement constitutes a legally binding contract, which is governed by the laws of California. However, whilst the LinkedIn user agreement confers jurisdiction over California, California law and jurisdiction may not be appropriate to intellectual property disputes. Additionally, the user agreement specifically highlights that some jurisdictions and countries do not permit the use of disclaimers in contracts and therefore in some countries, the disclaimers will not be applicable. There is also an exception from California being the appropriate choice of law and jurisdiction where parties have specified an alternative â€Å"competent jurisdiction† in an Arbitration Agreement. Additionally, LinkedIn users have the right to withdraw consent to the collection and processing of personal information at any time under the terms of the privacy policy. However, the withdrawal of consent is not retroactive, which means that any data collected up until the time of withdrawal of consent can still be processed by LinkedIn. However, if a user is under the age of 13 then under the Children’s Online Privacy Protection Act 1998, the website privacy policy must ensure that parental or guardian consent is obtained for the processing of data collected on the site. As issues impacting commerce and social networking continue to evolve, this, in turn, leads to continuous changes in legal issues impacting the networking environment.  Accordingly, the user agreement is subject to continuous changes and users are bound by changes to the LinkedIn User Agreement.

Autism Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Autism - Assignment Example for changing the term and using the umbrella in diagnosing autism in children is because it has been observed that different clinicians can diagnose same individual with different disorder and some may even change the diagnosis of the same symptom differently from one year to the other. In addition, the condition autism is, usually, defined by a common set of behaviors that are evident in the person and hence should be characterised by one term that should only vary according to the severity of the condition (Tanguay. p. 1142). Because DSM-v criteria combines all the sub diagnoses that were used previously under one condition, Autism spectrum disorder, inconsistencies may be noted to exist between DSM-v diagnoses and databases used for billing. Specific sub diagnoses including Asperger’s contain ICD-9-CM and ICD-10-CM specific codes. The major change is in the removal of the formal Asperger’s disorder and PDD-NOS diagnoses removal. When re-evaluated, individuals who initially were with these conditions are likely to receive different diagnoses when they visit hospitals for re-evaluation. This may be confusing for the parents who currently know the diagnoses of their children as well as adults and children who strongly identify with their conditions. The new criteria of DSM-v used for Autism is more thorough and appears strict compared to the initial criteria used for diagnoses. In this new criterion, it requires more symptoms to meet the criteria used within the fixated area of interest and the behaviour that are repeated. Other changes noted in the new criteria for diagnoses include reorganization. Currently, communication impairment, social interaction deficits, restricted interests and repetition of behaviors are main domains used in diagnosing autism. In the new criteria, there is a combination of social interactions and communication deficit to a single title of social/communication deficits. In addition to this, it is no longer necessary to have

Do silver ions kill bacteria Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Do silver ions kill bacteria - Essay Example & Etris, S.F. 1997 p.107-114). The mechanism of inhibition performed by silver ions on bacteria was analysed using gram-positive Straphylococcus aureus and gram negative E.coli by treating with AgNO3 and was analysed using a combined X-ray microanalysis and electron microscopy. Both S.aureus and E.coli cells exhibited similar morphological changes after silver treatment. The cell wall of the bacteria detached the cytoplasm membrane and a remarkable electron-light area surfaced in the middle of the cells that contained condensed DNA molecules. Several electron dense granules were also found deposited inside the cell or surrounding the cell wall. The presence of elements of sulphur and silver in cytoplasm and electron dense granules detected by X-ray microanalysis revealed the antibacterial actions of silver. The protein became inactivated and DNA lost its ability to replicate after the treatment of silver (Feng et al 2000 p.662-668). The anti-bacterial action of silver is based on the release of silver (Ag+ ions) that act by displacing essential ions of metals such as Zn+ or Ca2+. A study by Dowling et al using anti-bacterial silver coating deposited on heat sensitive polymeric substrates deploying a combination of neutral atom beam and magnetron sputtering indicates that platinum can be used to increase the release of Ag+ ions from the silver coating. In a galvanic setting platinum exhibits enhanced activity than silver and therefore platinum enhances silver ion formation during the galvanic action. The analysis of bacterial adhesion and bactericidal reaction on coated polymers using straphylococcus epidermidis reveals that the addition of 1% platinum significantly increases the anti-bacterial effectiveness of silver coatings. For every 5 nm thick Ag/1% Platinum coatings on silicone, up to a two log reduction in bacterial adhesion is achieved that did not show cytotoxicity (Dowling et al. 2003

Pacific Healthcare Essay Example for Free

Pacific Healthcare Essay He now has the opportunity to authorize the use of any X ray film other than Kodak. An investigation was complete in where Mr. Rubble had a reason to believe that the current Kodak price was above that of possible competition. There was an existing agreement with Kodak calls for furnishing X ray equipment along with maintenance and service, at a considerable discount for using Kodak as a single supplier of the X ray film. Kodak refused to provide those services if they were not their only source for X ray film. II. Major Problem Kodak has been Pacific HealthCare’s main supplier for X ray film. Now that Mr. Howell has pasted it is Mr. Rubbles’ responsibility to either decide to keep the Kodak for the X ray film or change to a different X ray film supplier. What needs to be kept in mind is that Kodak was also offering Pacific Healthcare discounts for furnishing X ray equipment along with maintenance and service. This was all because they were their only X ray film supplier. If Pacific Healthcare switches to a different X ray film supplier they will lose those discounts. Obtaining the highest quality with the best service at the lowest price is Pacific Healthcare’s supply strategy for medical supplies. Their objective is to find a single source supplier for a one year contract. III. Possible Solutions A. There are four other companies that make X ray films DuPont, Agfa, Fugi, and 3M. The quality of DuPont and Agfa are consistent with Kodak. Mr. Rubble can choose to go with DuPont since it holds the standard of Kodak and cost less than Agfa. The price of DuPont $1. 50 per sheet of X ray film. B. There are four other companies that make X ray films DuPont, Agfa, Fugi, and 3M. The quality of DuPont and Agfa are consistent with Kodak. Mr. Rubble can choose to go with Agfa since it holds the standard of Kodak. The only real issue I see here is that there is another company that makes the same quality of X ray film than both Kodak and Agfa. DuPont make the same quality of film for a lower price. The price of Agfa is $1. 58 per sheet of X ray film and DuPont offers it for $1. 50 per sheet. C. Mr. Rubbles can choose to stay with Kodak. The price for Kodak is higher than the other competition but they give Pacific Healthcare discounts on other services. Kodak furnishes Pacific Healthcare with X ray equipment, along with maintenance and services at a substantial discount for using Kodak as a single supplier for X ray film. I have found three issues with this possible solution. One, I do not know how much of a discount they are getting for the X ray equipment, along with the maintenance and services they are receiving from Kodak. With that I also need to know how much the competitors are willing to give Pacific Healthcare for those additional services that Kodak is offering to them. Last, but not least there are other competitors that are at a lower price range with the same quality as Kodak. DuPont offers their X ray film for $1. 50 per sheet and Agfa offers theirs at $1. 8 per sheet. Kodak is charging Pacific Healthcare $1. 80 per sheet of X ray film. With this solution we have to keep in mind that Pacific Healthcare uses approximately 1,500 sheets of X ray film per day. That is approximately $2,700 per day. If Mr. Rubbles chooses to go with DuPont which is the same quality as Kodak that would be approximately $2,250 per day. By choosing DuPont Pacific Healthcare with be saving about $450 a day. That is $3,150 per week and $12,600 a month by switching to DuPont. That is a huge saving for Pacific Healthcare. Pacific Healthcare can save money as well as keeping the same high quality as Kodak. IV. Choice and Rationale After reviewing all of the possible choices I chose to go with choice A. I chose A, because it saves Pacific Healthcare a lot of money as discussed in choice C. By choosing DuPont the company would save $450 a day compared to Kodak. That is $3,150 per week of savings and $12,600 a month by switching to DuPont. Also in choosing Agfa which is the same quality as Kodak, Pacific Healthcare would save $330. Keep in mind that Agfa and DuPont have the same quality as Kodak. Why choose Agfa over DuPont if they have the same quality of X ray film? That is why I chose DuPont. It is a smart solution, because it saves Pacific Healthcare money while also keeping the same quality as Kodak. Moving on two the other choices Mr. Rubble has. In the beginning I mentioned that there were four competitors that offered X ray films at a much lower rate than Kodak. The competitors were Agfa, DuPont, Fugi, and 3M. I have discussed Agfa and DuPont. The reason for not adding Fugi and 3M to my possible solutions is because Pacific Health care wanted to keep the same high quality in X ray film. Even though Fugi and 3M met minimum requirement they were thought of as having lower quality. Pacific Healthcare was looking for obtaining the highest quality with the best service at the lowest overall cost. To me they did not meet the requirement of Pacific HealthCare’s goal. V. Implementation I would let Pacific Healthcare know of my overall decision. In this brief, I would brief all my possible choices I had and why I chose to go with my choice. If we are in agreement my next step would be to contact DuPont and request their service for X ray film. From there I would let Kodak know that we appreciate their business, but we no longer are in need of their X ray film service. Of course I would make sure that DuPont has agree to be our single source supplier for X ray film prior to finishing the contract with Kodak. Appendix A What alternatives should Barney Rubbles consider when addressing the problem? Barry Rubbles should consider the high quality that Pacific Healthcare would like to keep as well as the best service with overall lower cost. He should consider which one would give the overall high quality as well as trying to save money. Should Pacific’s’ supply policies allow for any medical staff personnel to control sourcing decisions? In my personal opinion no, because they may not have the proper training or know what the companies needs are. I would like the professionals handle that. This case does not show a good example, because Mr. Howell chose the highest competitor. I would definitely have had both Mr. Howell and Mr. Rubbles work together. Sometimes one may come up with a different solution. What are the advantages and disadvantages of staying with Kodak—or changing suppliers? How would you evaluate these? If the Pacific Healthcare would stay with Kodak they could keep receiving their discount for the other services that Kodak provides. This includes the X ray equipment, maintenance and, service for being their only source for X ray film. Like previously stated, I am not sure exactly how much that discount was. Nor did I know how much the competitors were willing to give those services to Pacific Healthcare. With changing suppliers Pacific Healthcare would definitely save a lot of money. This would include changing to DuPont or Agfa. With DuPont the company would save $450 a day and by switching to Agfa the company would save $330 a day. Mr. Rubble has to keep in mind that both have the same quality of X ray film as Kodak. What action could Mr. Rubble have taken prior to Mr. Howell’s death to obtain reduced film prices? Mr. Rubble should have conducted a research just like he did when they put him in charge of the X ray film ordering. He should have presented this information to Mr. Howell and if he had disagreed Mr. Rubble should have taken it up to the company.

Guns Dont Kill People, People Kill People :: Say No To Gun Control

In the United States today, gun control has become a very big issue in the lives of its citizens. People arguing with each other over whether it is our constitutional right to be able to obtain and bear any kind of arms that we choose or that it only belongs to the militia. Many arguments come up over whether or not just average people can show up at a gun show and sell a gun to any person without giving them a background check first. Not only do they want back ground checks they want restrictions, and bans. Should there be bans on certain kinds of weapons? If so what kind of weapons? Should any person be able to buy a gun anytime or any place? Are people getting the right picture on what guns do for the country or are they getting deprived of information? It was shown that, â€Å"Out of 300 evening news segments, anti-gun stories outnumbered pro-gun stories by 164 to 20† (Dickens 1). This is an outstanding number that shows that the media plays a huge role in what people thin k about the issue of gun control. If all they see is guns involved with murders, and not involved with self-defense; how much longer will we have our guns? All of these things are factoring in to the issue of gun control and how important it is to some people and hated by others. In this paper I will lay out different views, arguments, and issues that could affect gun collectors, hunters, and the every day citizen for years to come. Gun control is in issue that dates back to the early 1900’s, near the times of prohibition. The first federal gun law was passed in 1927 which made it illegal to send weapons through the mail. This law did not really prevent the trade of firearms because people would just ship them other ways such as, trains, boats and cars. To follow up on this law the congress passed the National Firearms Act of 1934. This law consisted of, â€Å"Didn’t actually outlaw machine guns or sawed-off shotguns, but it imposed a 200$ tax on their manufacture, sale, and ownership† (Henderson16). As you can see the Federal government began to step in early on in this nation’s history. This is not a new issue it has been debated for years whether or not the government should be able to restrict America’s right to bear arms.

Custom Coffee & Chocolate Essay

According to the overview of Custom Coffee & Chocolate’s business, Bonnie Brewer and Stacy Kim run a small cafà © where they serve unique coffee, chocolates and maintain a shop. The cafà © is located near a university, where students, faculty, staff, and local residents are the main customers. They have run the business successfully, working together without any employees and selling their products only in the cafà ©. They have started to think about further development. The main question at this point is what strategies they should launch to achieve that aim. The first step to answer on that question is analyzing the company’s internal environment and identifying it strengths and weaknesses. The greatest strength is undoubtedly knowledge acquired by the owners during business and marketing courses and there experience gained at work. The owners also chose an interesting location with many students who they know and understand very well, which combined with the offer is strength of their business. Customers can sit in comfortable chairs, on couches, and at coffee tables, and chat or read newspapers between classes. As we consider weaknesses, we can identify a few problematic things. The largest of these is the limited access to services due to the small space in the cafà ©. Moreover, lack of employees makes it impossible for the cafà © to open longer, because the owners also have to handle the finances. There is also no possibility for customers to order goods over the phone or online, and for the cafà © to deliver service to locations on campus, such as dorms and lounges where students are studying. Another weakness is quite poor menu, which should be extended by new products. Additionally, too little attention is paid to social inclusion by organizing events such as poetry readings or discussion groups, and conducting a blog which could integrate students around the cafà ©. Lack of a wireless connection that customers could use is a significant drawback. The last weakness, which is really important, is a lack of financial reserve. The owners exhausted their savings and the initial small business loan, and  their six-month lease is up. The second step is analyzing the company’s external environment and identifying it opportunities and threats. The greatest opportunity for the development of the company is the ability to reach a wider range of customers who are potentially interested in using the service of the cafà ©. Custom Coffee & Chocolate’s business plan bases on purchasing only fair trade coffee and chocolates made by a few local suppliers. It is worth considering the possibility of obtaining a better price from producer in exchange for promoting their brands. It is also possible to extent the number of potential suppliers, which is likely to enable the cafà © to purchase products at much better prices. An opportunity for the development of the company is the application of new technologies such as online shops, websites or blogs, to allow better contacts with customers on the Internet. Unfortunately, threats also can appear in the company’s external environment. It could be a decrease in the number of students at the University or changed location of classes. The biggest threat may be the emergence of competitors offering similar services at lower prices or better quality. The strategy adopted by the company, which consists of buying products from local suppliers and ordering only fair trade coffee, may cause a risk of introduction of cheaper substitutes on the market by competitors. The last but not the least threat is connected with the need to increase the cafà ©Ã¢â‚¬â„¢s debt by taking additional loans for further development. After determining the strengths and weaknesses of the company’s internal environment as well as the opportunities and threats of the company’s external environment, it is necessary to propose some strategies that take into account the interdependencies between particular elements of SWOT analysis, which will help to develop the company in the right way. One of the ideas is to acquire new customers by increasing the availability of products. Arranging a sale of products through the online store and allowing customers to play orders by phone, organizing appropriate marketing campaigns on the website or in local media, gives opportunities to achieve that goal. Ordered goods would be delivered by courier. At the initial stage, the range of delivery might be limited to locations on campus, such as dorms and lounges where students are studying. This strategy would be built on opportunities of using the Internet and growing the customer’s base without the necessity of looking for larger premises to run  a cafà ©. It is necessary to hire employees to allow the owners to focus on strategic management activities in the cafà ©. It would give Bonnie Brewer and Stacy Kim opportunity to use their knowledge and experience and take over more of the finance and marketing activities. Another interesting strategy that can protect the company against the loss of customers is building social cohesion by turning the cafà © into a cult meeting place for students, faculty and other staff of the University. Organizing poetry readings or discussion groups could be a great idea. Moreover, those activities would be supported by a blog which would be moderated by the cafà ©Ã¢â‚¬â„¢s owners. This way, drinking coffee or eating delicious chocolates would be only a natural addition and benefit during meetings. In that case, the main strength is the specific location with students, faculty and staff whose the owners of the cafe know and understand well. Having loyal customer groups may be particularly important when some competitors appear on the market. This way, the company could significantly reduce this kind of threat. A very effective strategy which could be used is building a recognizable brand of their own products. They should be presented as unique and not available from other competitors. In addition, it might be possible to prepare a wider range of products which could be better suited to the local customers needs. This strategy should be based on the promotion of local products and suppliers of products and high quality fair trade coffee. It could be an opportunity to get additional money from sponsors of the cultural and community building mission carried out by the owners of the cafà ©. The above strategy is based on the strength connected with high quality products which take a niche place on the market and cannot be easily replaced. It protects the company from the threat of competition and improves its competitive advantage.

Cap and Trade Policy Paper Essay

Introduction: The issue of carbon emissions is an important one not only from an environmental perspective but also an economic one. While reducing carbon emissions is an important one for the health of human beings as well as that of the environment, the larger question is what type of policy strategy is best for both reducing such emissions which might have an impact on efforts to mitigate the effects of pollution on climate change. While ther are options to consider which does not rely on economics– technological or output standards achieved by command and control regulations–they are often fraught with political resistance by industry because they do not allow industry to make any choices or play a role in solving the problem of excessive emissions and the burden that these emissions place on others. Instead of such draconian measures based on fiat, the preferred options rely on economic tools instead to provide incentives to industry to police itself by either incenting investment in emission-reducing and/or energy saving technologies or to reduce production in line with the total/social-costs rather than just the private/ producer-costs of production. Two such economic policies to consider in this regard are emission taxes and cap-and-trade policies. Overview of Policy Problem: Carbon emissions reduction Consider a company that faces an increasing marginal pollution abatement cost curve as in the Figure 1. Left unregulated it will choose not to reduce its carbon emissions (a.k.a abate carbon emissions) and avert facing the costs of abatement represented by the area underneath the marginal abatement cost curve represented by area (B + C + D) in the diagram below. Figure 1: Marginal Costs and Marginal Benefits of Reducing Carbon Emissions [pic] Source: Econ 101: Carbon Tax vs. Cap-and-Trade, 2012, n.pag. Suppose that policy analysts have determined that the economically efficient level of pollution abatement occurs at the point where marginal benefits of abatement equal the marginal cost costs of abatement as is suggested in economic theory. The resulting level of carbon emissions is e* (reduction in emissions is measured from the far right in the diagram above to the pointe*). The question is what policy to follow to achieve e*: either some type of fiat policy involving either some type of output restriction or requiring use of a particular pollution-control technology or some type of policy that involves financial incentives to reduce emissions. This paper hypothesizes that policy options involving economic incentives are preferable to those options that involve regulatory fiat. Specification of Economic Policy Models: 1) A Carbon Emissions Tax: One policy instrument that can be used to achieve this level of abatement is to set a tax where marginal benefit equals marginal cost — represented by the horizontal â€Å"tax† line in the Figure 2 below. Under such a scheme, the polluter will find that it is cheaper to reduce carbon emissions so long as the marginal cost is lower than the tax. Since the tax bill (A + B) is great than the marginal abatement cost bill (B) to the left of the point e*, the firm will choose to reduce emissions up to the level of C with the remaining emissions level indicated in figure 2 measured from the right in the diagram. To the right of e*, the marginal abatement costs, represented by areas C + D, are greater than the tax bill (area D) so the firm will choose to pay the tax and continue to emit pollutants beyond e*. Figure 2: The Carbon Emissions Tax [pic] Source: Econ 101: Carbon Tax vs. Cap-and-Trade, 2012, n.pag. So long as the marginal costs and benefits of abatement can be known with certainty, an emissions tax can be set at the point of intersection of these two measures resulting in an efficient level of pollution emissions at e* with total abatement costs (including taxes paid) to the polluter of area B+D and providing the government with revenues represented by D (Econ. 101: Carbon Tax vs. Cap and Trade, n. pag.). It is when these marginal costs and marginal benefits are either not measurable in their entirety or when there is uncertainty about the figures obtained that leads to added questions as to whether this would be the best policy to follow. 2) A Cap Policy: An alternative policy to an emissions tax to achieve reductions in emissions through the tools of economics is to set a cap at the point where marginal social benefit equals marginal social cost of reducing emissions/abatement — represented by the vertical â€Å"cap† line in Figure 3 below. The polluting firm must reduce its carbon emissions to e* where the marginal social cost of reducing emissions equals the marginal social benefit of the products produced by the polluter. Such a policy–if the social costs and social benefits can be measured accurately—results in an efficient level of emissions produced/reduced at e* with an abatement cost borne by Figure 3: Cap Policy for Each Firm [pic] Source: Econ 101: Carbon Tax vs. Cap-and-Trade, 2012, n.pag. the polluter equivalent to area B (Econ. 101: Carbon Tax vs. Cap and Trade, n. pag.). The issue is whether total social costs can be measured and measured accurately in order to set such a policy at the correct or efficient level of emissions for each firm. Normally such policies do not result in efficiency even though an efficient level of overall emissions can be attained since it does not account for different costs of abatement in different firms. That is, a level of emissions can be attained that is equivalent to that achieved under an economically efficient policy but the level is not achieved at the lowest overall cost. One way of obtaining individual caps is for the government to auction off emission permits that total the pre-set amount of emissions that it feels is optimal. Firms with higher costs of reducing emissions will bid higher than firms with lower cost structures. Again, the only problem is determining what the total amount of emissions should be reflecting all social costs and benefits of reducing carbon emissions. 3) A Cap-and-Trade Policy An added twist on the cap policy allows firms to trade emission allotments between themselves based on the buyer of allotment bargaining with the seller over the proper price to pay for the extra allotment. A two-panel diagram is needed to better understand the logic of trading emission allotments. Figure 4 illustrates the marginal cost of reducing emissions of two firms. One firm is run on older technology with high abatement costs that goes from right to left with zero costs represented at the lower right-hand corner of the diagram. The other firm has newer technology in its plant with lower abatement costs that goes left to right with zero costs represented at the lower left-hand corner of the diagram. The width of the horizontal axis is the reduction in emissions that must be achieved overall to an efficient level. The intersection of the two marginal cost curves is where economic efficiency is achieved. That is, the value achieved Figure 4. Cap-and-Trade Between Firms Policy Source: Econ 101: Carbon Tax vs. Cap-and-Trade, 2012, n.pag. from the last dollar expended on abatement must be the same across all firms in the market. This is known as the equimarginal principle (Boyes and Melvin, 2011,122). The total cost of attaining the efficient abatement/emissions level is equal to the area C + G + K. At the efficient level of emissions, e*, the low cost (of reducing emissions) firm should reduce more emissions than the high cost (or reducing emissions) firm. Such a policy can be implemented by issuing carbon permits to different firms and allowing them to buy and sell their permits in the open market. Normally, equal amounts of permits are issued to each firm since it is difficult to assess the true abatement cost a priori. In the end, the marketplace will help determine the differences in cost structure depending on how high a firm is willing to bid for an extra permit or two (Econ. 101: Carbon Tax vs. Cap and Trade, n. pag.). As with the individual firm cap policy, the cap-and-trade policy is predicated on the government being able to determine the optimal level of total emissions desired reflecting social costs and benefits of reducing carbon emissions. Combining the different economic policy options together, it is obvious that it is possible to achieve the same level of reduction in emissions by setting a tax at the same level as where the marginal costs of reducing emissions is the same between firms which is at the level represented by the horizontal line in Figure 4 above. As above, the polluting firms will notice that it is cheaper to abate carbon emissions as long as the marginal abatement cost is lower than the tax. The firms with the higher cost structure will reduce emissions to e* when measured from right to left and incur abatement costs equivalent to area K and pay taxes equivalent to area B+C+F+G. The firms with the lower cost structure will reduce emissions to e* when measured from left to right and incur abatement costs of C+G and pay taxes equivalent to areas J + K in Figure 4. Setting a cap on each individual firm will produce the same level of reduction in emissions, but given that it is difficult, if not impossible, to individualized caps based on different cost structures of abatement, an efficient outcome is difficult to achieve under such a policy even though emissions are reduced to the same overall level. Regarding the market failure due to the negative carbon externality, both a carbon tax and carbon cap-and-trade will achieve the same level of increased efficiency–assuming that measurements of costs and benefits can be measured accurately– by reducing emissions to the optimal level at minimum cost. The real difference in these policies is due to differences in the distribution of costs. In the carbon tax policy, the government receives added revenues while in the cap and cap-and-trade policies when permits are simply handed out to firms, the firm has no additional outlays other than the cost of abatement to stay within the cap or to purchase additional allotment from other firms. If the permits are initially auctioned off by the government, the additional revenues to the government should be nearly the same as with a tax scheme if marginal social costs and benefits have been measured accurately. However, the economics-based policies are preferable to policies based on fiat where specific technologies (e.g., smoke-stack scrubbers) or a uniform cap on emission outputs across all firms since these other policies fail to take into account social costs and benefits. With regard to the economics-based policies, the following added impacts may also occur. First, in addition to static efficiency–efficiency occurring within a single period of time–there may also be dynamic efficiency within these policy schemes whereby firms have an incentive to adopt new technology over time to reduce their marginal costs of reducing carbon emissions (Econ. 101: Carbon Tax vs. Cap and Trade, n. pag.). Secondly, carbon emission taxes and/or auctioning permits will generate additional government revenue that might be used to offset various distortionary taxes on labour and/or capital (Econ. 101: Carbon Tax vs. Cap and Trade, n. pag.). Evidence and Analysis: There are various problems associated with the design of emissions tax regimes warranting discussion. First, if such a tax were placed on individuals rather than firms without any offsetting changes in other taxes or government transfers, a carbon tax might be regressive suggesting that the highest tax burden would be placed on the poor (Poterba, 1991, 11). This is mostly applicable to gasoline taxes where a flat emissions tax would make up a higher percentage of the income of poorer over wealthier taxpayers; thus, an issue of equity arises here. Likewise, firms with higher profit margins would shoulder less burden from the tax than firms with lower profit margins given a similar costs of pollution abatement. Poterba (1991) suggests that this regressiveness could be offset by changes in either the direct tax system or in government transfers. Second, as the population grows and production totals continue to increase to meet the demands of this growing population, emission taxes will need to rise to keep emissions at a particular level; this may lead to a set of distortions in terms of domestic vs. foreign production whereby firms can transfer production to other jurisdictions that do not have such taxes in place. Thus, international trade leads to an opportunity to get around the tax scheme and the higher the taxes instituted, the higher the incentive to engage in such behaviour. Thus, if emission taxes differ significantly between two neighbouring jurisdiction–for example, the State of New York and Connecticut or even New York and one of its neighbouring Canadian provinces–there is an inherent incentive to move production outside of the jurisdiction with the highest taxes and import products from elsewhere. Third, a central issue regarding the design of carbon emissions taxes to harmonize such polities with other fiscal instruments designed to mitigate the effects of climate change. For instance, it is important to ensure that taxes on chlorofluorocarbons and emissions from fossil fuels are comparable to avoid distortions in consumption that may lead to a worse outcome for the environment than in the absence of such policies (Poterba, 1991, 27). Bosquet (2000) conducted a review of the evidence regarding the impact of carbon emissions taxes on the environment and the economy. She claims that environmental taxes involve the shifting of tax burden from employment, income, and investment to resource depletion and waste. She asks the general question of whether such tax reform can produce a double benefit by helping the environment and the economy simultaneously. Based on her reviews of the literature and available evidence, she concludes that when emissions taxes are instituted, they are generally associated with reductions in payroll taxes, and–if wage-price inï ¬â€šation is prevented–they often result in signiï ¬ cant reductions in pollution and small gains in employment (Bosquet, 2000, 19). Also associated with the implementation of such environmental taxes are also marginal changes–gains or losses– in production in the short to medium term, while investments decease marginally and prices increase. However, she cautions that the results of such environmental taxes in the long-term are less certain (Bosquet, 2000, 29). With regard to cap and cap-and-trade policies, the evidence is also available regarding the effectiveness and consequences of such policies. Stavins (2008) describes a graduated cap-and-trade scheme that involves initially just Carbon gasses with 50% of permits issued to polluters in the market free of charge and other half auctioned off. Over 25 years, the percentage auctioned off annually will gradually increase to 100% and other greenhouse gas emissions will be included over this time span. The idea is to implement a gradual iterative policy with a slow trajectory of emission reductions. As time goes on, other emissions are included in this scheme and the system provides for harmonizing this scheme over time with effective cap-and-trade systems and other emission credit reduction programs in other jurisdictions. This harmonization effectively addresses the issue raised with emission tax policies that are unilaterally established in one jurisdiction without consideration for the po licies in neighbouring jurisdictions. If there is an effective way to dovetail policies in different jurisdiction, then this would level the playing field between domestic and imported products. Regarding actual cap-and-trade policies already in place, Colby (2000) analyzes a cap-and-trade policy for limiting Sulfur Dioxide emissions. The changes stemmed from the Clean Air Act of 1990 which allowed for a nationwide cap-and-trade policy for industrial firms emitting sulfur dioxide into the atmosphere. Marginal costs of reducing emissions fell substantially duringn the 1990s due to reduced costs of installing scrubbers, reduced costs of flue gas desulfurization, and falling costs for low sulfur coal all due, to a large extent, to an active program of trading/buying allowances between firms that emerged after a few years of experience after the program was initiated. As Colby (2000) states, â€Å"The allowance trading market enhanced competition among the different methods that firms use to control emissions, adding impetus to cost reductions† (Colby, 2000, 642). Low allowance prices and falling marginal costs associated with reducing emissions produced earlier-than-predicted cutbacks in sulfur dioxide emissions. Allowance prices rose from lows of $80-90/unit in 1996 to about $215/unit in mid-1999 spurring further conservation efforts. Colby (2002) does mention that design and implementation of cap-and-trade schemes involves some important policy tradeoffs: equity among the players, balancing use levels with resource conditions, facilitating transactions between firms wishing to trade allowances, accurate accounting for externality costs, assuring adequate monitoring of emissions levels, and documenting welfare gains due to the policy. She says that efficient trading mechanisms can be more easily implemented when there is a strong political or legal mandate to cap resource use and trading allowances are sensed by all parties involved to be a way to ease adjustment to limits on emissions (Colby, 2000, 638). In choosing between the various policies, it is inevitably important to sense the level of uncertainty over measuring the items of interest. With regard to emissions taxes, it is important to have fairly accurate estimates of marginal social costs and benefits and with regard to cap-and-trade schemes, there needs to also be a fairly accurate means of estimating the optimal level of emissions given all the costs and benefits involved in reducing emissions. If it becomes difficult to measure these items accurately, then the expected deadweight loss and associate probabilities of various miscalculations needs to be assessed and compared across the different strategies to determine the policy that produces the smallest expected deadweight loss which is key from an economic perspective. Since policies based on fiat, such as technology mandates and non-economically based output standards, are not set with regard to these types of measures, it is likely that the deadweight economic loss associated with these policies will be greater than for either emissions taxes or better yet, cap-and-trade policies. Conclusion: The evidence suggests that economics-based emissions policies are preferred over policies based on fiat. Moreover, the strongest evidence for promoting investment in pollution control equipment and reducing emissions that mitigate the effects of climate change appear to involve cap-and-trade policies. Partially, this might be due to the flexible design of such policies which—through the auctioning and/or trading of allowances—account for changing market conditions. This policy, even more so than emission taxes, forces the industry to face current market conditions through the use of auctions and trading for emission allowances. As a result, the parties are forced to make choices based on strong economic criteria to obtain efficiencies over time. Works cited: Bosquet B. 2000. Environmental Tax Reform: Does It Work? A Survey of The Empirical Evidence. Ecological Economics. 34, 19-32, Colby G. 2000. Cap-and-Trade Policy Challenges: A Tale of Three Markets. Land Economics, 76, 638-658. Econ. 101: Carbon Tax vs. Cap-and-Trade. 2012. Website. Retrieved on June 5th, 2012 from http://www.env-econ.net/carbon_tax_vs_capandtrade.html Melvin W. Boyes M. 2011. Microeconomics. 9th ed. Marion, OH: South-Western, Cengage Learning, Poterba JM. 1991. Tax Policy to Combat Global Warming: On Designing a Carbon Tax. NBER Working Paper. MIT-CEPR 91-003WP. Retrieved on June 7th, 2012 from http://dspace.mit.edu/bitstream/handle/1721.1/50159/28596145.pdf?sequ Stavins RN. 2008. Addressing Climate Change with a Comprehensive U.S. Cap-and-Trade System. Nota Di Lavoro 67.2008 Fondazione Eni Enrico Mattei. Retrieved on June 7th, 2012 from http://www.feem.it/userfiles/attach/Publication/NDL2008/NDL2008-067.pdf